KOREA
Korea, known as
Hanguk in
South Korean and
Chosŏn in
North Korean, is an
East Asian territory that is
divided into two distinct
sovereign states,
North Korea and
South Korea. Located on the
Korean Peninsula, Korea is bordered by
China to the northwest and
Russia to the northeast. It is separated from
Japan to the east by the
Korea Strait and the
Sea of Japan (the Korean "East Sea"); it is separated from
Taiwan to the south by the
East China Sea.
The adoption of the
Chinese writing system ("
Hanja" in Korean) in the 2nd century BC and the introduction of
Buddhism in the 4th century AD had profound effects on the
Three Kingdoms of Korea, which was first united during the
Silla (57 BC – AD 935) under the
King Munmu. The united Silla fell to
Goryeo in 935 at the end of the
Later Three Kingdoms. Goryeo was a highly cultured state and created the
Jikji
in the 14th century. The invasions by the Mongolians in the 13th
century, however, greatly weakened the nation, which was forced to
become a tributary state. After the
Mongol Empire's collapse, severe political strife followed. The
Ming-allied
Joseon emerged supreme in 1388.
The first 200 years of Joseon were marked by relative peace and saw the creation of the Korean
Hangul alphabet by
King Sejong the Great in the 14th century and the increasing influence of
Confucianism. During the later part of the dynasty, however, Korea's isolationist policy earned it the Western nickname of the "
Hermit kingdom". By the late 19th century, the country became the object of the colonial designs by
Japan. In 1910, Korea was
annexed by Japan and remained a colony until the end of
World War II in August 1945.
In 1945, the
Soviet Union and the
United States agreed on the
surrender of Japanese forces
in Korea in the aftermath of World War II, leaving Korea partitioned
along the 38th parallel, with the north under Soviet occupation and the
south under U.S. occupation. These circumstances soon became the basis
for the
division of Korea by the two
superpowers, exacerbated by their inability to agree on the terms of Korean independence. The two
Cold War
rivals then established governments centered around their own
respective ideologies, leading to Korea's division into two political
entities: North Korea and South Korea.
"Korea" is the modern spelling of
Corea, a name attested in English as early as 1614. It is an
exonym derived from
Cauli,
Marco Polo's
transcription of the
Chinese 高麗 (simp. 高丽, MC Kawlej,[6] mod. Gāolì). This was the
Hanja for the Korean kingdom of
Goryeo or
Koryŏ (고려; 918–1392), which ruled most of the peninsula during the time of his travels. (Scholars who discount the historicity of
Polo's account instead derive it via
Persian variations of the same Chinese name.
[7]) Goryeo's name was an homage to the earlier
Goguryeo or
Koguryo (고구려; 37 BC – AD 668), the northernmost of the
Samkuk (the
Three Kingdoms of Korea), which was officially known by the shortened form Goryeo after the 5th-century reign of
King Jangsu. The original name was a combination of the adjective
go ("high, lofty") with the name of a local
Yemaek tribe, whose original name is thought to have been either
Guru (구루, "walled city") or
Gauri (가우리, "center"). With expanding British and American trade following the
opening of Korea in the late 19th century, the spelling "Korea" appeared and gradually grew in popularity; its use in transcribing
East Asian languages avoids the issues caused by the separate
hard and soft Cs existing in English vocabulary derived from the
Romance languages. The name Korea is now commonly used in English contexts by both North and South Korea.
In
South Korea, Korea as a whole is referred to as
Hanguk (한국, [haːnɡuk], lit. "country of the
Han"). The name references the
Samhan—
Ma,
Jin, and
Byeon—who preceded the Three Kingdoms in the southern and central end of the peninsula during the 1st centuries
BC and
AD. Although written in
Hanja as
韓,
幹, or
刊, this
Han has no relation to the Chinese place names or peoples who used those characters but was a
phonetic transcription (OC: *Gar, MC Han or
Gan)
of a native Korean word that seems to have had the meaning "big" or
"great", particularly in reference to leaders. It has been tentatively
linked with the title
khan used by the nomads of
Manchuria and
Central Asia.
In
North Korea, Korea as a whole is referred to as
Chosŏn (조선, Joseon, [tɕosʌn], lit. "[land of the] Morning Calm"). "Great
Joseon" was the name of the kingdom ruled by the
Joseon dynasty from 1393 until their declaration of the short-lived
Great Korean Empire in 1897.
King Taejo had named them for the earlier
Gojoseon (고조선), who ruled northern Korea from its legendary
prehistory until their conquest in 108
BC by China's
Han Empire. This
go is the
Hanja 古 and simply means "ancient" or "old"; it's a modern usage to distinguish the ancient Joseon from the later dynasty.
Joseon itself is the modern Korean pronunciation of
the Hanja 朝鮮 but it remains unclear whether this was a
transcription of a native Korean name (
OC *T[r]awser,
MC Trjewsjen) or a partial translation into Chinese of the Korean capital
Asadal (아사달), whose meaning has been reconstructed as "Morning Land" or "Mountain".
Prehistory and Gojoseon
The Korean Academy of North America discovered ancient hominid fossils originating from about 100,000
BC
in the lava at a stone city site in Korea. Fluorescent and
high-magnetic analyses indicate the volcanic fossils may be from as
early as 300,000
BC. The best preserved Korean pottery goes back to the
paleolithic times around 10,000
BC and the
Neolithic period begins around 6000
BC.
Gojoseon's founding legend describes
Dangun, a descendent of
Heaven, as establishing the kingdom in 2333
BC The original capital may have been on the present-day
Manchurian border, but was later moved to what is today
Pyongyang in North Korea. In 108
BC, the Chinese
Han Dynasty defeated
Wiman Joseon and installed the
Four Commanderies of Han in the area of the northwestern Korean Peninsula and part of the Liaodong Peninsula, leaving many smaller kingdoms and confederacies in the southern and eastern parts of the peninsula. By 75
BC, three of those commanderies had fallen, but the
Lelang Commandery remained as a center of cultural and economic exchange with successive Chinese dynasties until 313, when it fell to
Goguryeo.
Proto–Three Kingdoms
The Proto–Three Kingdoms period, sometimes called the Several States Period, is the earlier part of what is commonly called the
Three Kingdoms Period, following the fall of
Gojoseon but before
Goguryeo,
Baekje, and
Silla fully developed into kingdoms.
This time period saw numerous states spring up from the former territories of Gojoseon.
Buyeo arose in today's North Korea and southern
Manchuria, from about the 2nd century
BC to 494. Its remnants were absorbed by Goguryeo in 494, and both Goguryeo and
Baekje, two of the
Three Kingdoms of Korea, considered themselves its successor.
Okjeo and
Dongye of northern Korea were eventually absorbed into the growing Goguryeo.
Located in the southern part of the
Korean Peninsula,
Samhan refers to the three confederacies of
Mahan,
Jinhan, and
Byeonhan.
Mahan was the largest and consisted of 54 states. Byeonhan and Jinhan
both consisted of twelve states, bringing a total of 78 states within
the Samhan. These three confederacies eventually developed into
Baekje,
Silla, and
Gaya.
Three Kingdoms
The Three Kingdoms of Korea (
Goguryeo,
Silla, and
Baekje)
dominated the peninsula and parts of Manchuria at beginning of the 1st
century AD. They competed with each other both economically and
militarily.
Goguryeo united
Buyeo,
Okjeo,
Dongye and other states in the former Gojoseon territory. Goguryeo was the most dominant power; it reached its zenith in the 5th century, when reign of the
Gwanggaeto the Great and his son,
Jangsu expanded territory into almost all of Manchuria and part of inner Mongolia, and took the
Seoul
region from Baekje. Gwanggaeto and Jangsu subdued Baekje and Silla
during their times. After the 7th century, Goguryeo was constantly at
war with the
Sui and
Tang dynasties of China.
Founded around modern day
Seoul, the southwestern kingdom
Baekje expanded far beyond
Pyongyang
during the peak of its powers in the 4th century. It had absorbed all
of the Mahan states and subjugated most of the western Korean peninsula
(including the modern provinces of
Gyeonggi,
Chungcheong, and
Jeolla, as well as part of
Hwanghae and
Gangwon) to a centralised government. Baekje acquired Chinese culture and technology through contacts with the
Southern Dynasties
during the expansion of its territory. Historic evidence suggests that
Japanese culture, art, and language was strongly influenced by the
kingdom of Baekje and Korea it self
.
Although later records claim that
Silla,
in the southeast, was the oldest of the three kingdoms, it is now
believed to have been the last kingdom to develop. By the 2nd century,
Silla existed as a large state, occupying and influencing nearby city
states. Silla began to gain power when it annexed the
Gaya confederacy
in AD 562. The Gaya confederacy was located between Baekje and Silla.
The three kingdoms of Korea often warred with each other and Silla often
faced pressure from Baekje and Goguryeo but at various times Silla also
allied with Baekje and Goguryeo in order to gain dominance over the
peninsula.
In 660, King
Muyeol of Silla ordered his armies to attack
Baekje. General
Kim Yu-shin (Gim Yu-sin), aided by
Tang forces, conquered Baekje. In 661, Silla and Tang moved on Goguryeo but were repelled. King
Munmu, son of Muyeol and nephew of General Kim launched another campaign in 667 and Goguryeo fell in the following year.
North and South States period
In the 5th, 6th and 7th centuries, Silla's power gradually extended
across the Korean Peninsula. Silla first annexed the adjacent
Gaya confederacy.
By the 660s, Silla formed an alliance with the Tang Dynasty of China to
conquer Baekje and later Goguryeo. After repelling Chinese forces,
Silla partially unified the peninsula, beginning a period often called
Unified Silla.
In the north, former Goguryeo General
Dae Joyeong led a group of Goguryeo refugees to the
Jilin area in Manchuria and founded
Balhae (698–926) as the successor to Goguryeo. At its height, Balhae's territory extended from northern
Manchuria down to the northern provinces of modern-day Korea. Balhae was destroyed by the
Khitans in 926.
Unified Silla fell apart in the late 9th century, giving way to the tumultuous
Later Three Kingdoms period (892–935).
Goryeo unified the Later Three Kingdoms and absorbed Balhae refugees.
Goryeo
The country Goryeo was founded in 918 and replaced Silla as the
ruling dynasty of Korea. "Goryeo" is a short form of "Goguryeo" and the
source of the English name "Korea". The dynasty lasted until 1392.
During this period laws were codified, and a civil service system was introduced.
Buddhism flourished, and spread throughout the peninsula. The development of
celadon industry flourished in 12th and 13th century. The publication of
Tripitaka Koreana onto 80,000 wooden blocks and the invention of the world's first movable-metal-type
printing press in 13th century attest to Goryeo's cultural achievements.
Their dynasty was threatened by
Mongol invasions
from the 1230s into the 1270s, but the dynastic line continued to
survive until 1392 since they negotiated a treaty with the Mongols that
kept its sovereign power.
In 1350s,
King Gongmin
was free at last to reform a Goryeo government. Gongmin had various
problems that needed to be dealt with, which included the removal of
pro-Mongol aristocrats and military officials, the question of land
holding, and quelling the growing animosity between the Buddhists and
Confucian scholars.
Joseon dynasty
In 1392, the general
Yi Seong-gye
established the Joseon Dynasty (1392–1910) with a largely bloodless
coup. He named it the Joseon Dynasty in honor of the previous Joseon
before (Gojoseon is the first Joseon. "Go", meaning "old", was added to
distinguish between the two).
King Taejo moved the capital to
Hanseong (formerly Hanyang; modern-day
Seoul) and built the
Gyeongbokgung palace. In 1394 he adopted
Confucianism as the country's official religion, resulting in much loss of power and wealth by the Buddhists. The prevailing philosophy was
Neo-Confucianism.
Joseon experienced advances in science and culture.
King Sejong the Great (1418–50) promulgated
hangul,
the Korean alphabet. The period saw various other cultural and
technological advances as well as the dominance of neo-Confucianism over
the entire peninsula. Slaves,
nobi, are estimated to have accounted for about one third of the population of Joseon Korea.
Between 1592 and 1598, the
Japanese invaded Korea.
Toyotomi Hideyoshi tried to invade
the Asian continent through Korea, but was completely defeated by a
Righteous army, Admiral
Yi Sun-sin and assistance from
Ming China. This war also saw the rise of the career of Admiral Yi Sun-sin with the "
turtle ship". Japanese warriors brought back to Japan as
war trophies an estimated 100,000–200,000 noses cut from Korean victims. In the 1620s and 1630s Joseon suffered
invasions by the Manchu.
After
invasions from Manchuria, Joseon experienced a nearly 200-year period of peace.
King Yeongjo and
King Jeongjo led a new renaissance of the Joseon dynasty.
However, during the last years of the Joseon Dynasty, Korea's isolationist policy earned it the name the "
Hermit Kingdom", primarily for protection against Western
imperialism before it was forced to open trade beginning an era leading into
Japanese colonial rule.
Korean Empire
The earliest surviving depiction of the Korean flag was printed in a US Navy book
Flags of Maritime Nations in July 1889.
Main article:
Korean Empire
Beginning in the 1871s, Japan began to force Korea out of the Manchu
Qing Dynasty's traditional sphere of influence into its own. As a result
of the Sino-Japanese War (1894–95), the Qing Dynasty had to give up
such a position according to Article 1 of the
Treaty of Shimonoseki, which was concluded between China and Japan in 1895. That same year,
Empress Myeongseong was assassinated by Japanese agents.
In 1897, the Joseon dynasty proclaimed the
Korean Empire (1897–1910), and King Gojong became
Emperor Gojong.
This brief period saw the partially successful modernisation of the
military, economy, real property laws, education system, and various
industries, influenced by the political encroachment into Korea of
Russia, Japan, France, and the United States.
In 1904, the
Russo-Japanese War pushed the Russians out of the fight for Korea. In
Manchuria on October 26, 1909,
An Jung-geun assassinated the former
Resident-General of Korea,
Itō Hirobumi for his role in trying to force Korea into occupation.
Japanese occupation
In 1910, an already militarily occupied Korea was a forced party to the
Japan-Korea Annexation Treaty. The treaty was signed by
Lee Wan-Yong,
who was given the General Power of Attorney by the Emperor. However,
the Emperor is said to have not actually ratified the treaty according
to Yi Tae-jin. There is a long dispute whether this treaty was legal or illegal due to its signing under duress, threat of force and bribes.
Korean resistance to the brutal Japanese occupation
was manifested in the nonviolent
March 1st Movement of 1919, during which 7,000 demonstrators were killed by Japanese police and military. The
Korean liberation movement also spread to neighbouring
Manchuria and
Siberia.
Over five million
Koreans were conscripted for labour beginning in 1939, and tens of thousands of men were forced into Japan's military. Close to 400,000 Korean labourers lost their lives due to the war. Approximately 200,000 girls and women, mostly from China and Korea, were forced into sexual slavery for the Japanese military. In 1993, Japanese Chief Cabinet Secretary
Yohei Kono acknowledged the terrible injustices faced by these euphemistically named "
comfort women".
[38][39]
During the Japanese Colonial rule, the Korean language was suppressed
in an effort to eradicate Korean national identity. Koreans were forced
to take Japanese surnames, known as
Sōshi-kaimei.
[40] Traditional
Korean culture suffered heavy losses, as numerous Korean cultural artifacts were destroyed or taken to Japan. To this day, valuable Korean artifacts can often be found in Japanese museums or among private collections.
One investigation by the South Korean government identified 75,311
cultural assets that were taken from Korea, 34,369 in Japan and 17,803
in the
United States. However, experts estimate that over 100,000 artifacts actually remain in Japan.
Japanese officials considered returning Korean cultural properties, but to date this has not occurred. Korea and Japan still dispute the ownership of the
Liancourt Rocks, islets located east of the Korean Peninsula.
There was a significant level of emigration to the overseas territories of the
Empire of Japan during the Japanese colonial period, including
Korea. By the end of
World War II, there were over 850,000 Japanese settlers in Korea. After World War II, most of these
overseas Japanese repatriated to Japan.
Korean War
Urban combat in Seoul, 1950, as US Marines fight North Koreans holding the city.
With the surrender of
Japan in 1945 the
United Nations developed plans for a trusteeship administration, the
Soviet Union administering the peninsula north of the
38th parallel and the
United States administering the south. The politics of the
Cold War resulted in the 1948 establishment of two separate governments,
North Korea and
South Korea.
In June 1950 North Korea invaded the South, using Soviet tanks and weaponry. During the
Korean War
(1950–53) more than one million people died and the three years of
fighting throughout the nation effectively destroyed most cities. The war ended in an
Armistice Agreement at approximately the
Military Demarcation Line.
The aftermath of World War II left Korea partitioned along the 38th
parallel, with the north under Soviet occupation and the south under US
occupation supported by other allied states. Consequently, the
Democratic People's Republic of Korea, a Soviet-style socialist republic, was established in the north while the
Republic of Korea, a Western-style regime,
was established in the South.
The Korean War broke out when Soviet-backed North Korea invaded South
Korea, though neither side gained much territory as a result. The Korean
Peninsula remains divided, the
Korean Demilitarized Zone being the
de facto border between the two states.
Since the 1960s, the South Korean economy has grown enormously and
the economic structure was radically transformed. In 1957 South Korea
had a lower per capita
GDP than
Ghana, and by 2008 it was 17 times as high as Ghana's.
North Korea, officially the
Democratic People's Republic of Korea, is a
single-party state, now centred around
Kim Il-sung's
Juche ideology, with a
centrally planned industrial economy.
South Korea, officially the
Republic of Korea, is a
multi-party state with a
capitalist market economy, alongside membership in the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development and the
Group of Twenty.
The two states have greatly diverged both culturally and economically
since their partition, though they still share a common traditional
culture and pre-Cold War history.
According to
R.J. Rummel,
forced labor, executions, and concentration camps were responsible for over one million deaths in North Korea from 1948 to 1987; others have estimated 400,000 deaths in concentration camps alone. Estimates based on the most recent North Korean census suggest that 240,000 to 420,000 people died as a result of the
1990s famine and that there were 600,000 to 850,000 unnatural deaths in North Korea from 1993 to 2008.
Tensions continue to this day, but the political arena is a far more
complicated one. Recently the U.S. has expressed concerns over North
Korea's provocation of South Korea by carrying out shelling of the
island of
Yeonpyeong, which itself lies on a disputed sea border between the two countries.
[54][55][56]
Daedongyeojijeondo, a map of Korea
Korea is located on the
Korean Peninsula in
North-East Asia. To the northwest, the Amnok River (
Yalu River) separates Korea from China and to the northeast, the Duman River (
Tumen River) separates Korea from China and Russia. The peninsula is surrounded by the
Yellow Sea to the west, the
East China Sea and Korea Strait to the south, and the Sea of Japan to the east. Notable islands include
Jeju Island (Jejudo),
Ulleung Island (Ulleungdo), and
Liancourt Rocks (Dokdo).
The southern and western parts of the peninsula have well-developed
plains, while the eastern and northern parts are mountainous. The
highest mountain in Korea is
Mount Paektu or Paektusan (2,744 m), through which runs the border with China. The southern extension of Mount Paektu is a highland called
Gaema Heights. This highland was mainly raised during the
Cenozoic
orogeny and partly covered by volcanic matter. To the south of Gaema
Gowon, successive high mountains are located along the eastern coast of
the peninsula. This mountain range is named
Baekdudaegan. Some significant mountains include
Mount Sobaek or Sobaeksan (1,439 m),
Mount Kumgang or Kumgangsan (1,638 m),
Mount Seorak or Seoraksan (1,708 m),
Mount Taebaek or Taebaeksan (1,567 m), and
Mount Jiri
or Jirisan (1,915 m). There are several lower, secondary mountain
series whose direction is almost perpendicular to that of Baekdudaegan.
They are developed along the tectonic line of Mesozoic orogeny and their
directions are basically northwest.
Unlike most ancient mountains on the mainland, many important islands
in Korea were formed by volcanic activity in the Cenozoic orogeny. Jeju
Island, situated off the southern coast, is a large volcanic island
whose main mountain
Mount Halla or Hallasan (1950 m) is the highest in South Korea. Ulleung Island is a volcanic island in the
Sea of Japan, whose composition is more felsic than Jeju-do. The volcanic islands tend to be younger, the more westward.
Because the mountainous region is mostly on the eastern part of the peninsula, the main
rivers tend to flow westwards. Two exceptions are the southward-flowing
Nakdong River (Nakdonggang) and
Seomjin River (Seomjingang). Important rivers running westward include the Amnok River, the
Chongchon River (Chongchongang), the
Taedong River (Taedonggang), the
Han River (Hangang), the
Geum River (Geumgang), and the
Yeongsan River (Yeongsangang). These rivers have vast flood plains and provide an ideal environment for wet-rice cultivation.
The southern and southwestern coastlines of Korea form a well-developed
ria coastline, known as
Dadohae-jin
in Korean. Its convoluted coastline provides mild seas, and the
resulting calm environment allows for safe navigation, fishing, and
seaweed farming. In addition to the complex coastline, the western coast
of the Korean Peninsula has an extremely high tidal amplitude (at
Incheon,
around the middle of the western coast. It can get as high as 9 m).
Vast tidal flats have been developing on the south and west coastlines.
Wildlife
Animal life of Korea includes a considerable number of bird species and native
freshwater fish. Native or
endemic species of the
Korean Peninsula include
Korean hare,
Korean water deer,
Korean field mouse,
Korean brown frog,
Korean pine and
Korean spruce. The
Korean Demilitarized Zone (DMZ) with its forest and natural
wetlands is a unique biodiversity spot, which harbours eighty two
endangered species.
There are also approximately 3,034 species of
vascular plants.
Demographics
The combined population of the Koreans is about 73 million (North
Korea: 23 million, South Korea: 50 million). Korea is chiefly populated
by a highly
homogeneous ethnic group, the
Koreans, who speak the
Korean language.
The number of foreigners living in Korea has also steadily increased
since the late 20th century, particularly in South Korea, where more
than 1 million foreigners reside. It is estimated that only 26,700 of the old
Chinese community now remain in South Korea. However, in recent years, immigration from mainland China has increased; 624,994 persons of
Chinese nationality have immigrated to South Korea, including 443,566 of
ethnic Korean descent. Small communities of ethnic Chinese and
Japanese are also found in North Korea. The
baekjeong were an “untouchable” outcaste group of Korea, often compared with the
burakumin of Japan and the dalits of India.
Language
Korean is the official language of both North and South Korea, and (along with Mandarin) of
Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture
in Manchuria area of China. Worldwide, there are up to 80 million
speakers of the Korean language. South Korea has around 50 million
speakers while North Korea around 23 million. Other large groups of
Korean speakers are found in
China (around 1.8 million speakers), the
United States (around 900,000 speakers), the former
Soviet Union (around 350,000),
Japan (around 700,000),
Canada (100,000),
Malaysia (70,000) and
Australia
(150,000). It is estimated that there are around 700,000 people
scattered across the world who are able to speak Korean because of job
requirements (for example, salespersons or businessmen with Korean
contacts), marriages to Koreans or out of pure interest in the language.
[citation needed]
The genealogical
classification of Korean is debated. Some linguists place it in the
Altaic language family; others consider it to be a
language isolate. Korean is
agglutinative in its morphology and
SOV in its
syntax. Like
Japanese and
Vietnamese, Korean has borrowed much vocabulary from the
Chinese or created vocabulary on Chinese models.
Modern Korean is written almost exclusively in the script of the
Korean alphabet
(known as Hangul in South Korea and Chosungul in China and North
Korea), which was invented in the 15th century. While Hangul may appear
logographic, it is actually a
phonemic alphabet organised into
syllabic blocks. Each block consists of at least two of the 24 hangul letters (
jamo): at least one each of the 14
consonants and 10
vowels. Historically, the alphabet had several additional letters (see
obsolete jamo). For a phonological description of the letters, see
Korean phonology.
Hanja (Chinese characters) and
Latin alphabets are sometimes included within Hangul texts, particularly in South Korea.
Culture and arts
Korean Buddhist architecture
Traditional Korean dance (
Jinju geommu)
In ancient Chinese texts, Korea is referred to as "Rivers and Mountains Embroidered on Silk" (
금수강산,
錦繡江山) and "Eastern Nation of Decorum" (
동방예의지국,
東方禮儀之國).
Individuals are regarded as one year old when they are born, as Koreans
reckon the pregnancy period as one year of life for infants, and age
increments increase on
New Year's Day
rather than on the anniversary of birthdays. Thus, one born immediately
before New Year's Day may only be a few days old in western reckoning,
but two years old in Korea. Accordingly, a Korean person's stated age
(at least among fellow Koreans) will be one or two years more than their
age according to western reckoning. However, western reckoning is
sometimes applied with regard to the concept of
legal age;
for example, the legal age for purchasing alcohol or cigarettes in the
Republic of Korea is 19, which is measured according to western
reckoning.
Literature
Korean literature written before the end of the Joseon Dynasty is
called "Classical" or "Traditional." Literature, written in Chinese
characters (
hanja),
was established at the same time as the Chinese script arrived on the
peninsula. Korean scholars were writing poetry in the classical Korean
style as early as the 2nd century
BC,
reflecting Korean thoughts and experiences of that time. Classical
Korean literature has its roots in traditional folk beliefs and folk
tales of the peninsula, strongly influenced by
Confucianism,
Buddhism and
Taoism.
Modern literature is often linked with the development of
hangul,
which helped spread literacy from the aristocracy to the common people
and women. Hangul, however, only reached a dominant position in Korean
literature in the second half of the 19th century, resulting in a major
growth in Korean literature.
Sinsoseol, for instance, are novels written in hangul.
The
Korean War led to the development of literature centered on the wounds and chaos of
war.
Much of the post-war literature in South Korea deals with the daily
lives of ordinary people, and their struggles with national pain. The
collapse of the traditional Korean value system is another common theme
of the time.
Music
Main article:
Music of Korea
Korean music includes both folk and classical music. The country has produced internationally prominent composers.
Young-ja Lee is one example. She was born in 1931 in
Wonju and studied at the
Conservatoire de Paris, and the
Royal Conservatory of Brussels. She continued her education at the
Manhattan School of Music.
Lee endured hardships during the Japanese occupation and Korean War,
but emerged to become one of the dominant forces in Korean music in the
20th century.
Religion
Amitabha and Eight Great Bodhisattvas, Goryeo scroll from the 1300s
Confucian tradition has dominated Korean thought, along with contributions by
Buddhism,
Taoism, and
Korean Shamanism. Since the middle of the 20th century, however,
Christianity
has competed with Buddhism in South Korea, while religious practice has
been suppressed in North Korea. Throughout Korean history and culture,
regardless of separation; the influence of traditional beliefs of Korean
Shamanism, Mahayana Buddhism, Confucianism and Taoism have remained an
underlying religion of the Korean people as well as a vital aspect of
their culture; all these traditions have coexisted peacefully for
hundreds of years up to today despite strong Westernisation from
Christian missionary conversions in the South
or the pressure from the
Juche government in the North.
According to 2005 statistics compiled by the South Korean government,
about 46% of citizens profess to follow no particular religion.
Christians account for 29.2% of the population (of which are Protestants 18.3% and Catholics 10.9%) and
Buddhists 22.8%.
Islam in South Korea
is practiced by about 45,000 natives (about 0.09% of the population) in
addition to some 100,000 foreign workers from Muslim countries.
Cuisine
Main article:
Korean cuisine
Korean cuisine is probably best known for
kimchi, a side dish which uses a distinctive
fermentation
process of preserving vegetables, most commonly cabbage. Kimchi is said
to relieve the pores on the skin, thereby reducing wrinkles and
providing nutrients to the skin naturally. It is also healthy, as it
provides necessary vitamins and nutrients.
Gochujang
(Korean traditional sauce made of red pepper) is also commonly used,
often as pepper (chilli) paste, earning the cuisine a reputation for
being spicy.
Bulgogi (roasted marinated meat, usually beef),
galbi (marinated grilled short ribs), and
samgyeopsal
(pork belly) are popular meat entrees. Fish is also a popular
commodity, as it is the traditional meat that Koreans eat. Meals are
usually accompanied by a soup or stew, such as
galbitang (stewed ribs) and
doenjang jjigae (fermented bean paste soup). The center of the table is filled with a shared collection of sidedishes called
banchan.
Other popular dishes include
bibimbap which literally means "mixed rice" (rice mixed with meat, vegetables, and red pepper paste) and
naengmyeon (cold noodles).
Instant noodles are also a very popular snack food. Koreans also enjoy food from
pojangmachas (street vendors), where one can buy
tteokbokki (rice cake and fish cake with a spicy gochujang sauce), fried squid and glazed sweet potato.
Soondae, a sausage made of cellophane noodles and pork blood, is widely eaten. There is also an instant noodle called "
Ramyun" which is spicy for non-Koreans.
Additionally, some of other common snacks includes "
Choco Pie",
shrimp cracker, "bbungtigi" (fried rice cracker), and "nu lung ji"
(slightly burnt rice). Nu lung ji can be eaten as it is or boiled with
water to make a soup. Nu lung ji can be eaten as a snack or a dessert.
Education
The modern South Korean school system consists of six years in
elementary school, three years in middle school, and three years in high
school. Students are required to go to elementary and middle school,
and do not have to pay for their education, except for a small fee
called a "School Operation Support Fee" that differs from school to
school. The
Programme for International Student Assessment, coordinated by the
OECD, ranks South Korea's science education as the third best in the world and being significantly higher than the OECD average.
South Korea ranks second on math and literature and first in problem
solving. Although South Korean students often rank high on international
comparative assessments, the education system is criticised for
emphasising too much upon passive learning and memorization. The South
Korean education system is rather notably strict and structured as
compared to its counterparts in most Western societies. Also, the
prevalence of non-school for-profit private institutes such as academies
or cram-schools (
Hagwon
[학원]), which too emphasise on passive memorisation, as opposed to
conceptual understanding, in students are criticised as a major social
problem.
After students enter university, however, the situation is markedly reversed
The
North Korean education system consists primarily of
universal and state funded schooling by the
government. The national literacy rate for citizens 15 years of age and above is over 99 percent.
Children go through one year of kindergarten, four years of
primary education, six years of
secondary education, and then on to
universities. The most prestigious university in the DPRK is
Kim Il-sung University. Other notable universities include
Kim Chaek University of Technology, which focuses on computer science,
Pyongyang University of Foreign Studies, which trains working level diplomats and trade officials, and
Kim Hyong Jik University, which trains teachers.
Outside the formal structure of schools and classrooms in the north
is the extremely important "social education." This education includes
not only
extracurricular activities but also family life and the broadest range of
human relationships within society. There is great sensitivity to the influence of the
social environment
on the growing child and its role in the development of his or her
character. The ideal of social education is to provide a carefully
controlled environment in which
children are exposed only to pro-
Juche
and anti-south influences. According to a North Korean official
interviewed in 1990, 'School education is not enough to turn the rising
generation into men of knowledge, virtue, and
physical fitness. After school, our children have many spare hours. So it's important to efficiently organise their afterschool education'.
Science and technology
Jikji,
Selected Teachings of Buddhist Sages and Seon Masters, the earliest known book printed with movable metal type, 1377. Bibliothèque Nationale de Paris.
One of the best known artifacts of Korea's history of science and technology is
Cheomseongdae (첨성대,
瞻星臺), a 9.4-meter high observatory built in 634.
The earliest known surviving Korean example of woodblock printing is the
Mugujeonggwang Great Dharani Sutra. It is believed to have been printed in Korea in 750–51 AD which, if correct, would make it older than the
Diamond Sutra. Goryeo silk was highly regarded by Westerners and Korean
pottery made with blue-green
celadon
was of the highest quality and sought after by even Arabian merchants.
Goryeo had a bustling economy with a capital that was frequented by
merchants from all over the known world.
During the Joseon period the
Geobukseon (
turtle Ship) was invented, which were covered by a wooden deck and iron with thorns,
as well as other weapons such as the
bigyeokjincheolloe cannon (비격진천뢰,
飛擊震天雷) and the
hwacha.
The Korean alphabet
hangul was also invented during this time by
King Sejong the Great.
Sport
While
association football remains one of the most popular sports in Korea, the martial art of
taekwondo is still considered to be the national traditional sport.
Baseball is also increasing in popularity.
Taekwondo
Taekwondo is the national sport of Korea and one of the country's
most famous sports. According to ancient Korean history, soldiers
learned Taekwondo as a principal source of physical training. Farmers
used it to protect themselves/their animals from wild animals and
thieves. It combines combat techniques, self-defense, sport, exercise
and in some cases meditation and philosophy. Taekwondo has become an
official Olympic sport, starting as a demonstration event in 1988 and
becoming an official medal event in 2000.
Hapkido
Hapkido is a
Korean martial art similar to
Jujutsu
that employs joint locks, throws, kicks, punches and other striking
attacks like attacks against pressure points. Hapkido emphasizes
circular motion, non-resisting movements and control of the opponent.
Practitioners seek to gain advantage through footwork and body
positioning to employ leverage, avoiding the pure use of strength
against strength.
Ssireum
Ssireum is a form of wrestling that has been practiced in Korea for
thousands of years, with evidence discovered from Korea's Three Kingdoms
Period (57
BC
to 688). Ssireum is the traditional national sport of Korea. During a
match, opponents grip each other by sash belts wrapped around the waist
and the thigh, attempting to throw their competitor to the sandy ground
of the ring. The first opponent to touch the ground with any body part
above the knee or to lose hold of their opponent loses the round.
Ssireum competitions are traditionally held twice a year, during the
Tano Festival (the 5th day of the fifth lunar month) and
Chuseok (the 15th day of the 8th lunar month). Competitions are also held throughout the year as a part of festivals and other events.
